Ethnopharmacological Study on Traditional Knowledge of Medicinal Plant Used from Secondary Forest in Community at Sekabuk Village, Mempawah District, West Kalimantan, Indonesia

Study for local knowledge about ethnopharmacology especially medicinal plants used by the community is still limited. West Kalimantan possess a tropical rain forest with megabiodiversity. One of the areas where Malay and Dayak people use medicinal plants from the forest is Sekabuk village, Sadaniang Subdistrict, Mempawah District of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. This research has two objectives: first, to summarize the local knowledge of medicinal plants in the Sekabuk village, and second to identify the the mechanisms of shared on knowledge on used the medicinal plants on each ethnic. The research was conducted by in-depth interview and survey for 45 days in the village. The research programme consisted of interviews, plant observations, and a collection of medicinal plants from five different subdistricts sites i.e. Gelombang, Malangga, Pak Nungkat, Sekabuk, and Titi Dahan. The whole plants, part(s) used, and remedy formulations were elicited from healers and voucher specimens were collected for identification and stored at Forestry Faculty, Tanjungpura University. The results showed that there are 66 plants used for medicine. The family of plants consisted of Zingiberaceae, Lamiaceae abd Mrytaceae. The leaves were most frequently used (108), followed by roots (47), whole plant (21), top (6), stems and fruits (5), and sap (1). The methods for preparation and administration and the awareness of medicinal plants are different by ethnic groups and the living environments. The difference between the genders did not significant in terms of knowledge about medicinal plants. Meanwhile, A retention of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants was significant in rural of West Kalimantan. The plants used as medicine were clearly different by ethnic groups, Malay and Dayak. The living environments also affect the difference of used plants on basis of plants accesibility.


Introduction
Most of Indonesian people use traditional herbal medicines known as jamu to treat diseases. Jamu is a term in Javanese language, meaning the traditional medicine from plants, but it is now adopted into Indonesian language with the similar meaning. Recently, jamu becomes modern medicine, and related products are manufactured in many industries (Elfahmi et al. 2014). Thus, Indonesian have benefit from herbal medicines. On the other hand, people who live in rural and remote areas have employed plants as traditional medicines since earlier time. Jamu is distinguished from plant-based traditional medicine. Jamu is written the prescriptions in the form called 'serat' or 'primbon' by Javanese people (Riswan et al. 2002). By contrast, local knowledge of herbal medicine has accumulated and has been transmitted from age to age by word of mouth and by life style in rural area or among ethnic minorities (Inta et al. 2013). In Indonesia, number of uninsured individual reaches approximately 40% of nation, because an official healthcare insurance system for whole nation didn't exist until 2014 (Republik Indonesia 2012). Thus, the local people still use plants as the traditional medicine in substitution for treatment by doctor in healthcare center. Although recently local medicinal knowledge is spreading recognition that it is important in primary healthcare system, inexpensive modern medicine like tablet, capsule and liquid has spread across rural areas. Subsequently, the loss of their local knowledge has been progressed.
Indonesia has the second biggest biodiversity in the world after the Amazon forests (Elfahmi et al. 2014) and more than 300 ethnics domicile (Silalahi et al. 2015). Most of studies have focused on inhibitory activities against particular diseases or specific medicinal plants in Indonesia. Although the traditional knowledge of plant usage as medicine has studied by Indonesian researchers, most studies have not been published in international journals. Especially literatures concerning West Kalimantan are extremely rare. The interactions and relationships between the biological and cultural elements of the environment (Bye 1986) and the influence of the cultural and ecological factors on medicinal plant selection by ethnic groups were examined (Joshi and Edington 1990);Junsongduang et al. 2014;Silalahi et al. 2015). Although the difference in utilization of traditional medicine has been reported on these studies, rare report is available about those in Indonesia. Additionally, most research was carried out in one village where one ethnic group live.In this study we carried out research in one village which has two characteristics: different ethnic groups live and a community locates away from others. This research had two objectives: (1) to summarize the local knowledge of medicinal plants in this village; and (2) to identify their knowledge shared by all inhabitants or each ethnic group.

Research Site
This fieldwork was conducted in Sekabuk village, Sadaniang Sub-district, Mempawah District in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. This village is approximately located 110km from the capital city Pontianak (Fig. 1). Five communities, Gelombang, Malangga, Pak nungkat, Sekabuk and Titi Dahan live in the village. The indigenous people are Dayak 69%, Malay 21%, Chinese 8%, and other 2%. The population is about 2,000 (BPS 2013). Malay people live in the community, Pak nungkat is separated from other, but other ethnicities such as the Dayak people live together in other communities. Meanwhile,Sekabuk community is maintained in the center of the village, and Gelombang community is apart from other communities with 20 houses.

Data Sampling
Fieldwork was carried out at Sekabuk village Mempawah District West Kalimantan. The communities in this village still used the medicinal plants from the forest for their daily use and treat the diseases. The work consisted of interviews, plant observations, and a collection of medicinal plants in five different sites: Gelombang, Malangga, Pak Nungkat, Sekabuk, and Titi Dahan. Ethnobotanical data was collected through semi-structured interviews twice. During the first round of the survey, we interviewed 66 family units at Gelombang (n=9), Malangga (n=7), Pak nungkat (n=30), Sekabuk (n=5), and Titi Dahan (n=15). The informants were asked about their knowledge of the plants to treat diseases, the used parts, the modes of preparation and administration, the collection sites, and the plant types (native or cultivated). During the second survey, we interviewed 100 local people at Gelombang (n=5), Pak nungkat (n=34), Sekabuk (n=25), and Titi Dahan (n=36). Whereat we could not get cooperation from the people of Malangga community. We proceeded with the investigation without Malangga data. Awareness rate of medicinal plants were collected using a questionnaire -a checklist consisted of 66 species' names which were mentioned in the first fieldwork. The interviewees were randomly selected, and there were no meetings prior to the sampling. The plants were collected, pressed and then dried in the field, and the voucher specimens were later deposited at the Tanjungpura University. The vernacular names were collected through the help of local people. Scientific names of plants were expressed based on The Plant Names Index (IPNI 2005). The Welch's test was used to determine whether there were significant differences between known medicinal plants.

Characteristics of Medicinal Plants
A total of 66 different species were recorded for medicinal uses. They belonged to 34 families and were used to treat 46 ailments (Appendix 1). Five out of the 66 species were not identified yet, but the family name for two out of the 5 unidentified species were identified. In terms of the number of species used, Zingiberaceae and Lamiaceae (n=7) were the most used families followed by Myrtaceae (n=5). Zingiberaceous plants exist in about 50 genera and 1,300 species worldwide, distributed mainly in South and Southeast Asia. Plants of this family contain various type of in Community at Sekabuk Village, Mempawah District, West Kalimantan, Indonesia Yui Hashimoto, Fathul Yusro, Yeni Mariani, Farah Diba, and Kazuhiro Ohtani essential oils, including terpenes, alcohols, ketones, flavonoids, carotenoids and phytoestrogens (Chen et al. 2008). Many of lamiaceous plants are used as many medicinal plants because of their rich and fragrant essential oils which are principally composed of monoterpenes (Yamane et al. 2010).

Type of Medicinal Plants
Medicinal plants were collected in the forest by individuals or by their family members. Medicinal herbs were either cultivated by the residents (53%) or harvested from the wild (46%) (Fig. 2). In other words, native plants were reported rather than cultivated plants: 82% (Giday et al. 2003), 58% (Kichu et al. 2015) respectively. Fig. 2 revealed that ratio of native and cultivated plants were different by community. It shows that cultivated plant rate is high in Titi Dahan and Pak nungkat. People of these communities have the habit of transplanting near homes to use as medicine, because the utilization rate of these medicinal plants is also high. On the other hand, it was indicated that native plant rates is high in Gelombang and Sekabuk. Sekabuk community reported low frequency of use of medicinal plants for everyday use. The residents do not have the custom of cultivating medicinal plants, so that they did not report on their daily use. In the case of Gelombang, it is associated that this community is located near the mountain. There was a tendency to use a plant that grows wild in mountains.     Whole  plant  Fresh  2  0  3  0  6  1  1  1

Used Plant Parts
The leaves were most frequently used (108), followed by roots (47), whole plant (21), top (6), stems and fruits (5), and sap (1) in Sekabuk village (Table 1). This is the similar result as reported in many other ethnomedicinal studies in Asia (Pahnyaphu et al. 2011;Kadir et al. 2012;Inta et al. 2013;Junsongduang et al. 2014;Kichu et al. 2015). The leaves are more easily harvested compared to the other parts and the harvesting process is less damaging to the health of the plant itself (Tetali et al. 2009). The second most commonly used parts are the roots, because local people preferred plants of Zingiberaceae family in this village. Additionally, roots contain high concentration of bioactive compounds related to their function as reservoir (Srithi et al. 2009).
In the case of administration, people in Pak nungkat had a different trend. Malay people had a similar rate in the mode of administration: internal (56.1%) and external (43.9%). Looking at the relationship between the used parts and administration (Table 2), Dayak communities used fresh leaves for internal administration (4~13) rather for than external (1~7). Malay community preferred fresh leaves for external (28) as well as for internal (22).  Among them, eight species were popular as medicinal plants throughout Indonesia; Alpinia galanga Willd., Kaempferia galanga L., Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq., Morinda citrifolia L., Piper betle L., Psidium guajava L., Syzygium aqueum Alston, and Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Bahari 2013; Ningrum and Murtie 2013). Nine species were well known in Dayak communities, Gelombang, Sekabuk and Titi Dahan. Leonurus sibiricus L., called 'Kacang mah' was recognized among Dayak people by 80%, while Malay people rarely know this plant name nor the usage as medicine. Dayak said this local name is from the Chinese language and it is widespread in Dayak community because many Dayaknese have married Chinese people. Four medicinal plants were reported to be frequently used only in Pak nungkat. We discovered that these plants have been in the Malay people for generations. Three communities other than Gelombang used two of the same plants for medicine. Only in Gelombang, the five plants were highly recognized, but it cannot be concluded that these five plants are used primarily in Gelombang as medicinal plants because we were only able to interview five people in Gelombang. Among the two plants that were frequently used in the three communities besides Gelombang, Melastoma malabathricum L. has been previously researched as a plant that has been used among Gelombang and has also been highly recognized in Sekabuk village. The other plant, Kalanchoe pinnata Pers. has been cultivated in every community except Gelombang.

Awareness of Medicinal Plants in each Community
We summarized plant families in which plants have an awareness rate of 60% or more in Table 4. It was clearly that Dayak communities have unique tendency. Gelombang, Sekabuk and Titi Dahan most prefer to use Lamiaceae family, followed by Zingiberraceae and Myrtaceae.
Meanwhile in Pak nungakt, Malay community zingiberaceous plants are used frequently as medicinal plants. Although Myrtaceae also was mentioned as well as other communities, one spicies belongs to Lamiaceae. In part of 'Characteristics of medicinal plants', it was showed that Zingiberaceae are very widespread in Southeast Asia. Myrtaceous plants are also distributed throughout the tropics, with concentration in Southeast Asia. Many species are cultivated in home gardens to use many economically important food plants, agricultural crops and medicinal plants (Reynertson et al. 2008). The only plants mentioned in common to Sekabuk village of the Lamiaceae, Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. is very famous as medicinal plants in Indonesia. Two species out of lamiaceous plants mentioned in Dayak communities: Leonurus sibiricus L. and Vitex negundo L. are named by using Chinese language. These plants might be transmitted from Chinese people which live in this village. Although Vitex negundo L. was known as medicinal plant in Pak nungkat, Leonurus sibiricus L. was relatively unknown. Preparation of this plant as remedy was made using rice wine. Therefore, it is clear that it has not penetrated the ethnic not allowed to drink alcohol as medicinal plant.

Gender of Medicinal Plants Knowledge
There was no significant difference between the awareness rate of medicinal plant and the gender, males and females (t-test, P = 0.729). In general, women were more knowledgeable about medicinal plants than men (Caniago and Siebert 1998;Pahnyaphu et al. 2011;Almeida et al. 2012;Junsongduang et al. 2014). Whereas gender reflects the fact that women tend to be more responsible for family, especially child health care (Caniago and Siebert 1998; Almeida et al. 2012;Albuquerque et al. 2011) stated that men mentioned more ethnospecies than women did. This ethnic group trended that man collected the medicinal plants from the forest, and when a woman desired a medicinal plant from these areas, she would find a man to collect it. Additionally, their study observed that the anthropogenic areas were the women's main collection sites. In our study, there was no significant difference in collection sites (Table 5). Sekabuk villagers most commonly collected medicinal plants around their house; male (84.9%), female (80.5%). We observed that most of inhabitants earned their living through rice agriculture. In addition, they harvested rubber from trees and also logging wood as their side job.It seems that there is a culture that both men and women work inside and outside the house. Therefore, the knowledge and collection sites of both gender have no significant difference.

Conclusions
To conclude, in Sekabuk village, Sadaniang Subdistrict, Mempawah District in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, 66 plants were used as medicine. The plants used as medicine were clearly different by ethnic groups, that is Malay and Dayak. Local names of the plants were also different in ethnic groups. Therefore, their knowledge is clearly traditional. Additionally, the living environments effect the difference of used plants due to easiness to obtain plants. Some plants were used in common by each groups. They are widely known in Indonesia, so that this knowledge probably come through media such as books. We will continue the quantitative analysis of the data and will clarify